Direction for Reading Comprehension: The passages given here are followed by some questions that have four answer choices; read the passage carefully and pick the option whose answer best aligns with the passage
Aggression is any behavior that is directed toward injuring, harming, or inflicting pain on another living being or group of beings. Generally, the victim(s) of aggression must wish to avoid such behavior in order for it to be considered true aggression. Aggression is also categorized according to its ultimate intent. Hostile aggression is an aggressive act that results from anger, and is intended to inflict pain or injury because of that anger. Instrumental aggression is an aggressive act that is regarded as a means to an end other than pain or injury. For example, an enemy combatant may be subjected to torture in order to extract useful intelligence, though those inflicting the torture may have no real feelings of anger or animosity toward their subject. The concept of aggression is very broad, and includes many categories of behavior (e.g., verbal aggression, street crime, child abuse, spouse abuse, group conflict, war, etc.). A number of theories and models of aggression have arisen to explain these diverse forms of behavior, and these theories/models tend to be categorized according to their specific focus. The most common system of categorization groups the various approaches to aggression into three separate areas, based upon the three key variables that are present whenever any aggressive act or set of acts is committed. The first variable is the aggressor him/herself. The second is the social situation or circumstance in which the aggressive act(s) occur. The third variable is the target or victim of aggression. Regarding theories and research on the aggressor, the fundamental focus is on the factors that lead an individual (or group) to commit aggressive acts. At the most basic level, some argue that aggressive urges and actions are the result of inborn, biological factors. Sigmund Freud (1930) proposed that all individuals are born with a death instinct that predisposes us to a variety of aggressive behaviors, including suicide (self directed aggression) and mental illness (possibly due to an unhealthy or unnatural suppression of aggressive urges). Other influential perspectives supporting a biological basis for aggression conclude that humans evolved with an abnormally low neural inhibition of aggressive impulses (in comparison to other species), and that humans possess a powerful instinct for property accumulation and territorialism. It is proposed that this instinct accounts for hostile behaviors ranging from minor street crime to world wars. Hormonal factors also appear to play a significant role in fostering aggressive tendencies. For example, the hormone testosterone has been shown to increase aggressive behaviors when injected into animals. Men and women convicted of violent crimes also possess significantly higher levels of testosterone than men and women convicted of nonviolent crimes. Numerous studies comparing different age groups, racial/ethnic groups, and cultures also indicate that men, overall, are more likely to engage in a variety of aggressive behaviors (e.g., sexual assault, aggravated assault, etc.) than women. One explanation for higher levels of aggression in men is based on the assumption that, on average, men have higher levels of testosterone than women.
The author discusses all of the following arguments in the passage EXCEPT that:
Correct Answer :
aggression in most societies is kept under control through moderating the death instinct identified by Freud.
Solution :
The correct answer is "aggression in most societies is kept under control through moderating the death instinct identified by Freud."
Step-by-step Explanation:
To identify the correct option, we must examine the arguments discussed in the passage and find the one that is NOT mentioned (the "EXCEPT" option):
1. "men in general are believed to be more hormonally driven to exhibit violence than women."
This argument is discussed in the passage. The author states: "One explanation for higher levels of aggression in men is based on the assumption that, on average, men have higher levels of testosterone than women."
2. "several studies indicate that aggression may have roots in the biological condition of humanity."
This argument is also discussed in the passage. The author notes that "some argue that aggressive urges and actions are the result of inborn, biological factors" and references Freud's biological theory, evolutionary theories about neural inhibition/territorialism, and testosterone studies.
3. "the nature of aggression can vary depending on several factors, including intent."
This is discussed in the passage. The author writes: "Aggression is also categorized according to its ultimate intent," distinguishing between "hostile aggression" (intent to inflict pain/injury due to anger) and "instrumental aggression" (means to an end other than pain/injury).
4. "aggression in most societies is kept under control through moderating the death instinct identified by Freud."
While the passage mentions Sigmund Freud's theory that "all individuals are born with a death instinct that predisposes us to a variety of aggressive behaviors," it does not state or discuss how aggression is kept under control in most societies, nor does it talk about "moderating" this instinct to control societal aggression. In fact, it mentions that suppressing these urges might lead to mental illness.
Therefore, because this argument is never discussed in the text, it is the correct answer.
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